Herbert Weir Smyth, A Greek Grammar for Colleges

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THE CASES

[*] 1279. Of the cases belonging to the Indo-European language, Greek has lost the free use of three: instrumental, locative, and ablative. A few of the forms of these cases have been preserved (341, 1449, 1535); the syntactical functions of the instrumental and locative were taken over by the dative; those of the ablative by the genitive. The genitive and dative cases are therefore composite or mixed cases.

N.—The reasons that led to the formation of composite cases are either (1) formal or (2) functional. Thus (1) χώρᾳ is both dat. and loc.; λόγοις represents the instr. λόγοις and the loc. λόγοισι; in consonantal stems both ablative and genitive ended in -ος; (2) verbs of ruling may take either the dat. or the loc., hence the latter case would be absorbed by the former; furthermore the use of prepositions especially with loc. and instr. was attended by a certain indifference as regards the form of the case.

[*] 1280. Through the influence of one construction upon another it often becomes impossible to mark off the later from the original use of the genitive and dative. It must be remembered that since language is a natural growth and Greek was spoken and written before formal categories were set up by Grammar, all the uses of the cases cannot be apportioned with definiteness.

[*] 1281. The cases fall into two main divisions. Cases of the Subject: nominative (and vocative). Cases of the Predicate: accusative, dative. The genitive may define either the subject (with nouns) or the predicate (with verbs). On the nominative, see 938 ff.

[*] 1282. The content of a thought may be expressed in different ways in different languages. Thus, πείθω σε, but persuadeo tibi (in classical Latin): and even in the same language, the same verb may have varying constructions to express different shades of meaning.

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VOCATIVE

[*] 1283. The vocative is used in exclamations and in direct address: ““ὦ Ζεῦ καὶ θεοί” oh Zeus and ye gods” P. Pr. 310d, ““ἄνθρωπε” my good fellow” X. C. 2.2.7. The vocative forms an incomplete sentence (904 d).

a. The vocative is never followed immediately by δέ or γάρ.

[*] 1284. In ordinary conversation and public speeches, the polite ὦ is usually added. Without ὦ the vocative may express astonishment, joy, contempt, a threat, or a warning, etc. Thus ἀκούεις Αἰσχίνη; d'ye hear, Aeschines? D. 18.121. But this distinction is not always observed, though in general ὦ has a familiar tone which was unsuited to elevated poetry.

[*] 1285. The vocative is usually found in the interior of a sentence. At the beginning it is emphatic. In prose ἔφη, in poetry ὦ, may stand between the vocative and an attributive or between an attributive and the vocative; in poetry ὦ may be repeated for emphasis.

[*] 1286. In late poetry a predicate adjective may be attracted into the vocative: ὄλβιε κῶρε γένοιο blessed, oh boy, mayest thou be Theocr. 17. 66. Cp. Matutine pater seu Iane libentius audis Hor. S. 2. 6. 20.

[*] 1287. By the omission of σύ or ὑ_μεῖς the nominative with the article may stand in apposition to a vocative: ὦ ἄνδοες οἱ παρόντες you, gentlemen, who are present P. Pr. 337c, ““ὦ Κῦρε καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι Πέρσαι” Cyrus and the rest of you Persians” X. C. 3.3.20; and in apposition to the pronoun in the verb: ὁ παῖς, ἀκολούθει boy, attend me Ar. Ran. 521.

[*] 1288. The nominative may be used in exclamations as a predicate with the subject unexpressed: ““ὦ πικρὸς θεοῖς” oh loathed of heaven” S. Ph. 254, ““φίλος ὦ Μενέλα_ε” ah dear Menelaus” Δ 189; and connected with the vocative by and: ““ὦ πόλις καὶ δῆμε” oh city and people” Ar. Eq. 273. In exclamations about a person: ““ὢ γενναῖος” oh the noble man” P. Phae. 227c.

a. οὗτος is regular in address: οὗτος, τί πάσχεις, ὦ Ξανθία_; ho there, I say, Xanthias, what is the matter with you? Ar. Vesp. 1; ὦ οὗτος, Αἴα_ς ho there, I say, Ajax S. Aj. 89.

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GENITIVE

[*] 1289. The genitive most commonly limits the meaning of substantives, adjectives, and adverbs, less commonly that of verbs.

Since the genitive has absorbed the ablative it includes (1) the genitive proper, denoting the class to which a person or thing belongs, and (2) the ablatival genitive.

a. The name genitive is derived from casus genitivus, the case of origin, the inadequate Latin translation of γενικὴ πτῶσις case denoting the class.

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THE GENITIVE PROPER WITH NOUNS: (ADNOMINAL GENITIVE)

[*] 1290. A substantive in the genitive limits the meaning of a substantive on which it depends.

[*] 1291. The genitive limits for the time being the scope of the substantive on which it depends by referring it to a particular class or description, or by regarding it as a part of a whole. The genitive is akin in meaning to the adjective and may often be translated by an epithet. Cp. στέφανος χρυ_σίου with χρυ_σοῦς στέφανος, φόβος πολεμίου with πολέμιος φόβος, τὸ εὖρος πλέθρου with τὸ εὖρος πλεθριαῖον (1035). But the use of the adjective is not everywhere parallel to that of the genitive.

[*] 1292. In poetry a genitive is often used with βία_, μένος, σθένος might, etc., instead of the corresponding adjective: βίη Διομήδεος mighty Diomede E 781.

[*] 1293. In poetry δέμας form, κάρα_ and κεφαλή head, etc., are used with a genitive to express majestic or loved persons or objects: Ἰσμήνης κάρα_ S. Ant. 1.

[*] 1294. χρῆμα thing is used in prose with a genitive to express size, strength, etc.: ““σφενδονητῶν πάμπολύ τι χρῆμα” a very large mass of slingers” X. C. 2.1.5. Cp. 1322.

[*] 1295. The genitive with substantives denotes in general a connection or dependence between two words. This connection must often be determined (1) by the meaning of the words, (2) by the context, (3) by the facts presupposed as known (1301). The same construction may often be placed under more than one of the different classes mentioned below; and the connection between the two substantives is often so loose that it is difficult to include with precision all cases under specific grammatical classes.

a. The two substantives may be so closely connected as to be equivalent to a single compound idea: τελευτὴ τοῦ βίου ‘life-end’ (cp. life-time) X. A. 1.1.1. Cp. 1146.

b. The genitive with substantives has either the attributive (1154), or, in the case of the genitive of the divided whole (1306), and of personal pronouns (1185), the predicate, position (1168).

[*] 1296. Words denoting number, especially numerals or substantives with numerals, often agree in case with the limited word instead of standing in the genitive: ““φόρος τέσσαρα τάλαντα” a tribute of four talents” T. 4.57 (cp. 1323), ἐς τὰ_ς ναῦς, αἳ ἐφρούρουν δύο, καταφυγόντες fleeing to the ships, two of which were keeping guard 4. 113. So with οἱ μέν, οἱ δέ in apposition to the subject (981).

GENITIVE OF POSSESSION OR BELONGING

[*] 1297. The genitive denotes ownership, possession, or belonging: ““ἡ οἰκία_ ἡ Σίμωνος” the house of Simon” L. 3.32, ““ὁ Κύ_ρου στόλος” the expedition of Cyrus” X. A. 1.2.5. Cp. the dative of possession (1476).

[*] 1298. Here may be classed the genitive of origin: ““οἱ Σόλωνος νόμοι” the laws of Solon” D. 20.103, ἡ ἐπιστολὴ τοῦ Φιλίππου the letter of Philip 18. 37, κύ_ματα παντοίων ἀνέμων waves caused by all kinds of winds B 396.

[*] 1299. The possessive genitive is used with the neuter article (singular or plural) denoting affairs, conditions, power, and the like: ““τὸ τῶν ἐφόρων” the power of the ephors” P. L. 712d, ““τὸ τῆς τέχνης” the function of the art” P. G. 450c, ““τὸ τοῦ Σόλωνος” the maxim of Solon” P. Lach. 188b, ““ἄδηλα τὰ τῶν πολέμων” the chances of war are uncertain” T. 2.11, ““τὰ τῆς πόλεως” the interests of the State” P. A. 36c, ““τὰ τοῦ δήμου φρονεῖ” is on the side of the people” Ar. Eq. 1216. Sometimes this is almost a mere periphrasis for the thing itself: ““τὸ τῆς τύχης” chance” D. 4.12 τὰ τῆς σωτηρία_ς safety 23. 163, τὸ τῆς ὁσία_ς, ὁτιδήποτ᾽ ἐστί the quality of holiness, whatever it is 21. 126, ““τὸ τῶν πρεσβυτέρων ἡμῶν” we elders” P. L. 657d. So τὸ τούτου S. Aj. 124 is almost = οὗτος, as τοὐμόν is = ἐγώ or ἐμέ. Cp. L. 8.19.

[*] 1300. The genitive of possession may be used after a demonstrative or relative pronoun: ““τοῦτό μου διαβάλλει” he attacks this action of mine” D. 18.28.

[*] 1301. With persons the genitive may denote the relation of child to parent, wife to husband, and of inferior to superior: Θουκυ_δίδης ὁ Ὀλόρου Thucydides, the son of Olorus T. 4.104 (and so υιός is regularly omitted in Attic official documents), Διὸς Ἄρτεμις Artemis, daughter of Zeus S. Aj. 172, ““ἡ Σμι_κυθίωνος Μελιστίχη” Melistiche wife of Smicythion” Ar. Eccl. 46, Αυ_δὸς ὁ Φερεκλέους Lydus, the slave of Pherecles And. 1.17, ““οἱ Μένωνος” the troops of Menon” X. A. 1.5.13 (οἱ τοῦ Μένωνος στρατιῶται 1. 5. 11).

a. In poetry we may have an attributive adjective: Τελαμώνιος Αἴα_ς ( = Αἴα_ς ὁ Τελαμῶνος) B 528. Cp. 846 f.

[*] 1302. The word on which the possessive genitive depends may be represented by the article: ἀπὸ τῆς ἑαυτῶν from their own country (γῆς) T. 1.15 (cp. 1027 b). A word for dwelling (οἰκία_, δόμος, and also ἱερόν) is perhaps omitted after ἐν, εἰς, and sometimes after ἐξ. Thus, ““ἐν Ἀρίφρονος” at Ariphron's” P. Pr. 320a, ἐν Διονύ_σου (scil. ἱερῷ) at the shrine of Dionysus D. 5.7, ““εἰς διδασκάλου φοιτᾶν” to go to school” X. C. 2.3.9, ““ἐκ Πατροκλέους ἔρχομαι” I come from Patroclus's” Ar. Plut. 84. So, in Homer, εἰν（εἰς) Ἀίδα_ο.

[*] 1303. Predicate Use.—The genitive may be connected with the noun it limits by means of a verb.

““Ἱπποκράτης ἐστὶ οἰκία_ς μεγάλης” Hippocrates is of an influential house” P. Pr. 316b, ““Βοιωτῶν ἡ πόλις ἔσται” the city will belong to the Boeotians” L. 12.58, ““ἡ Ζέλειά ἐστι τῆς Ἀσία_ς” Zelea is in Asia” D. 9.43, ““οὐδὲ τῆς αὐτῆς Θρᾴκης ἐγένοντο” nor did they belong to the same Thrace” T. 2.29, ““ἃ διώκει τοῦ ψηφίσματος, ταῦτ᾽ ἐστίν” the clauses in the bill which he attacks, are these” D. 18.56.

[*] 1304. The genitive with εἰμί may denote the person whose nature, duty, custom, etc., it is to do that set forth in an infinitive subject of the verb: πενία_ν φέρειν οὐ παντός, ἀλλ᾽ ἀνδρὸς σοφοῦ 'tis the sage, not every one, who can bear poverty Men. Sent. 463, ““δοκεῖ δικαίου τοῦτ᾽ εἶναι πολί_του” this seems to be the duty of a just citizen” D. 8.72, ““τῶν νι_κώντων ἐστὶ καὶ τὰ ἑαυτῶν σῴζειν καὶ τὰ τῶν ἡττωμένων λαμβάνειν” it is the custom of conquerors to keep what is their own and to take the possessions of the defeated” X. A. 3.2.39.